James G. March, Martin Schulz and Xueguang Zhou

The Dynamics of Rules: Change in Written Organizational Codes

Stanford University Press

2000



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Subject Index



Aalen-Nelson estimation procedure, 207n2

Academic Council, 39-40, 86-87, 91, 92, 150; attention allocation of, 152; historical significance of, 164, 166; local effects of rules made by, 136; resolutions, 46; rule births under, 113, 116 table 5.3, 128; rule changes under, 155-56; rule populations under, 171

Academic rules, 35, 38-40; births, 87, 94, 100-103 tables 4.4-4.5, 106-7, 113-18, 120-24, 134-39, 166; changes, 87, 88-89, 104-5 table 4.6, 115, 134, 142, 143 fig. 6.2, 148-60, 173-74, 183; density, 94, 140, 180-81; effects of presidents on, 134; federal government and, 134, 167; independence from administrative rules, 132, 136; problem areas, 126; regimes, 92, 113, 115-18, 123, 124, 136, 140, 164; relationships among, 151; spells, 84; at Stanford, 86-89, 113-18, 165-66; suspensions, 87, 115, 140; variables of, 94; variations among rule areas, 136

Accounting, 35, 41-42

Action: environment for, 15; rule-based, 6-8, 10, 193, 196; theories of individual, 6-7

translations of rules into, 22, 23

Adaptation, 24-27, 58, 175-76, 190; of rules, 2, 25-27, 190; of rule users to rules, 73, 169. See also changes; revisions see also learning, selection process

Administrative conduct, 41

Administrative Guide, 36-37, 42, 85, 91, 111, 164

Administrative rules, 35-38; births, 86, 87-88, 94, 95-97 tables 4.1-4.2, 106-7, 109-13, 129-34; changes, 87-88, 98-99 table 4.3, 112, 142, 145-48, 173-74; density, 94, 129, 132, 140, 180-81; federal government and, 167; independence from academic rules, 132, 136; problem areas, 126; regimes, 109-11, 131-32, 147, 148, 164; relationships among, 148; spells, 84; at Stanford, 85-88, 109-13; suspensions, 86, 87-88, 112, 129, 132, 140; variables of, 94; variations among rule areas, 129, 131

Affirmative action programs, 34

Age, regime, 77-78, 91-92, 123, 124, 131-32, 136, 140, 147, 148, 159, 170-72, 190

Age, rule, 77-79; academic rules, 148, 150; administrative rules, 145, 147; changes and, 142-43, 148, 150, 156-59, 173-76, 178-79; effect on rule population, 170-72, 190; measurement of, 175-76; rule histories and, 93-94, 145-47, 172-73; stability and, 72-74

Agenda items: Academic Council, 119, 152, 153; attention allocated to, 121, 123, 153, 158, 183-84; Faculty Senate, 119, 152, 153, 183; rule births and, 119

Appropriateness, logic of, 7, 10, 18-19

Archives, 28-29, 85

Articles of Organization, 39

Association of College and University Business Administrators, 42

Association of Students at Stanford University (ASSU), 44

Attention allocation, 51-52, 57-58, 119; to agenda items, 121, 123, 153, 158, 183-84; competition and, 68-69, 183; contagion and, 182-84, 195; measurement of, 152, 153; partitioning, 155, 156; patterns of, 163; problem recognition and, 63-64; routinization of, 48, 51, 63-4, 153-6

rule births and, 112, 121, 184; rule changes and, 67-70, 123, 153, 155, 158, 159, 184, 195; theories of, 68

Authority, 26, 38-40

B

Bacchetti, Raymond, 52

Behavior. See Action

Births, 3, 4, 139-40; academic rules, 87, 94, 100-103 tables 4.4-4.5, 106-7, 113-18, 120-24, 134-39, 166; administrative rules, 86, 87-88, 94, 95-97 tables 4.1-4.2, 106-7, 109-13, 129-34; attention allocation and, 112, 119, 184; environment and, 111-12; external influences on, 59-60, 111; government role in, 111, 187-88; historical context of, 108-9, 112, 156, 165-67; influence of new regimes on, 164; models of, 94-99, 107-9; organizational structure and, 111, 113, 147, 169; patterns of, 48-50, 87-89, 106-7, 125, 159-60; problem solving and, 49-51, 56-57, 75, 159-60, 181-82; procedures, 92; rates of, 108-9; rule changes and, 112, 141; rule density and, 64-65, 80-82, 125-29, 132, 139-40, 179-82; in rule histories, 83-84; rule regimes and, 109-11, 113, 115-18, 123, 124, 140; rule suspensions and, 66, 112, 115, 129, 139-40, 179-82. See also Proliferation

Board of trustees, Stanford, 38-39

Breeding, rule. See Births; Proliferation

Budgeting, 35, 41, 51-52

Bureaucracies, 4, 9-10, 25, 61, 170; changes in regimes and, 164; rule proliferation in, 13-14, 65, 125, 192-93; Weber's law of, 179

C

Causal inferences, 201

Censorship, 87, 144

Centralization, 5-6, 8, 69-70

Certifications, 15

Change, organizational: theories of, 1, 11, 72, 79, 196; see also changes, learning

Changes, 25-27, 41; academic rules, 87, 88-89, 104-5 table 4.6, 115, 134, 142, 143 fig. 6.2, 148-60, 173-74, 183; administrative rules, 87-88, 98-99 table 4.3, 112, 142, 145-48, 173-74; attention allocation and, 67-70, 123; competence in making, 53-54, 74-75, 80, 173-74; contemporaneous, 151; definition of, 141; external influences and, 59-60, 159, 190; hazard rate of, 144; historical context of, 48, 72, 93, 155, 156, 165-67, 192, 195; optimal level of, 194-95; organizational structure and, 147, 150-51, 158, 159, 169; patterns of, 53, 57, 63, 70 table 3.1, 87-89, 141, 159-60, 166, 176-78; problem solving and, 26, 63; repeated events and, 144-45; rule age and, 78-79, 142-43, 173; rule births and, 112, 115; rule regimes and, 77-78, 147, 148, 151-52, 159, 164. See also Revisions; Suspensions

Changes, contemporaneous, 148

Choice-based action, 6-7

Civil Rights Act of 1964, 34

Clocks: Multiple clocks, 77, 92, 171, , regime, 92, 165. See also Regimes, age

Coefficients, 90; of academic rule births, 114 table 5.2, 116 table 5.3, 117 table 5.4, 118, 122 table 5.5, 135 table 5.8, 138-39 table 5.9; of academic rule changes, 149 table 6.2, 154 table 6.3, 157 table 6.4; of administrative rule births, 110 table 5.1, 130 table 5.6, 133 table 5.7; of administrative rule changes, 146 table 6.1

Committees, 39-40, 42-43

Competence: accumulation, 4, 57, 72-82, 191, 194; differential strengthening of, 77; external influences and, 74; in problem solving, 182; regime age and, 171; rule changes and, 53-54, 73-75, 80, 173-74. See also Knowledge; Learning

Competition, 15-16, 24; attention allocation and, 65, 68-70, 182-83; ethics of, 43-44; rule changes and, 148, 151, 159

Complexity, organizational, 31-32, 61; measurement of, 92-93; rule births and, 111, 113; rule changes and, 147, 150-51, 158, 169-70. See also Organizational structure

Compliance, 19, 60

Conflict, 12-13, 48-51

Consequences, 6-7, 10

Construction: of rules, 6; of organizational reality, 14-16. See also Social construction.

Contagion: of attention allocation, 67, 71, 121, 182-84; of problem generation, 57, 67-72; of rule changes, 148, 151, 155-56, 159, 194-95; technology and, 67-71

Contemporaneous changes, 148, 151

Content, 181-82

Contracts, 12, 13

Controller's office, 35, 36

Cooperation, 20

Coordination, 12, 41

Courses and Degrees, 86-87

Covariates, 84, 89-90, 94-105; of rule births, 107-8, 120-21; in study of rule change, 143-44

Crises, 51-53

CUBA Manual, 42

D

Darwinian models, 25

Deaths. See Suspensions

Debate, 21-22

Decentralization, 34, 41

Decision-making: processes, 50; theories of organizational, 68; see also action.

Delegation of authority, 39

Demands: rules as responses to, 50

Demonstrations, 32-33, 46, 59, 91; student, 43-44, 88, 120

Density, 64-66, 80-82; academic rules, 94, 140, 180-81; administrative rules, 94, 129, 132, 140, 180-81; environment and, 66, 94; global, 128-29, 131, 134, 136; local, 128-29, 131-32, 136, 139-40, 206-7n9, 206n8; organizational structure and, 64, 187; regime age and, 172; rule births and, 64-65, 80-82, 125-29, 132, 139-40, 179-82; rule regimes and, 131-32, 136; variations in, 132, 137. See also Problem space

Development, rule. See Evolution, rule

Diffusion, 27, 48, 71 See also Contagion

Discipline, 47, 49

Dismissals, 45-46

Dissolutions. See Suspensions

Distances, 71-72, 179, 199

Diversionary functions, 50-51, 69

Diversity in rule development, 197

Domains: contagiousness of revisions among, 72, 183; responsibility barriers of, 195; rule changes within, 155. See also Faculty rules; Student rules; Subpopulations

Durability. See Stability

Duration See Age, Rules, endurance of

Dynamic covariates, 144

E

Ecology, 57, 64, 196; attention allocation and, 67, 70; need for future study of, 201-2; problem recognition and, 70-71; regulation of, 191; of rule births, 112, 115, 169; of rule changes, 147-48, 151, 169, 179-84. See also Environment; External influences; Internal influences

Ecological structure of knowledge, 191-92; see also Knowledge

Economic change, theories of, 11

Economic institutions, 12, 24, 25, 26

Efficiency of history , 16, 195-97

Embeddedness, 42, 48, 58, 78, 163, 191, 198

Employment. See Organizations

Enforcement, 19, 60

Environment, 4; organizational structure and, 10, 15, 60-62, 195; rule age and, 78; rule births and, 111, 115, 123; rule changes and, 147, 151, 158, 159, 176, 190; rule density and, 66; rule regimes and, 165; rules as reflections of, 199; as source of problems, 66. See also Ecology; External influences; Internal influences

Eppstein, Maureen, 37

Event count analysis, 83

Evolution, rule, 16-18, 59; study of, 54-55; theories of, 22-25, 197; of unwritten rules, 19. See also Adaptation; Changes, Rules

Evolution of authority, 39, 53

Experience, 26, 73-77, 176, 200; see also Learning, experiential

Exploration and exploitation , 182, 199

External influences, 42, 52-61, 91; competence and, 74; in learning process, 189, 199-200; measurement of, 92; on rule births, 111, 118, 123-24, 131; on rule changes, 190; on rule histories, 167, 169; on rule regularities, 161; as sources of problems, 58-61, 66. external pressures for reliability, 172 See also Ecology; Environment

F

Faculty, 38-40, 42-43, 51, 52

Faculty Handbook, 87

Faculty rules, 44-47, 49, 119, 120; births, 121, 124, 136; changes, 137, 150, 152, 153, 156; densities, 137; historical patterns of, 166; influence on student rules, 184

Faculty Senate, 40, 47, 52, 86-87, 171; attention allocation, 152, 183-84; density of rules under, 137; effects of rules made by, 91-92, 136; historical significance of, 150, 164, 166; rule births under, 88, 113, 117 table 5.4, 128; rule changes under, 89, 155-56

Feedback, 24, 37-38

Firings, 45-46

Formal rules. See Written rules

Fundamental Standard, 43, 50, 52-53, 54

Funding, governmental , 33-34, 42, 60, 92; effects on rule histories, 167; rule births and, 111, 115, 120, 124, 129, 187-88; rule changes and, 147, 151, 152, 158, 187-88

G

Global effects, 127-29, 134, 136. See also Local effects.

Goals, organizational, 189

Government, 7-8; of faculty, 38-40; higher education and, 33-34, 42, 92, 111, 115, 162; influence on rule histories, 167; intervention of, 33, 58-61,147, 151, 166-7, models, 34; rule births and, 111, 115, 187-88; rule changes and, 147, 148, 151, 152, 158, 187-88; of students, 42-43, 52-53. See also Funding, governmental; Legislation

Groups: effects of rules on, 20, 21

H

Handbooks, 34

Hazard rate, 84, 144, 173, 177

Heterogeneity, unobserved population, 128n7, 174-75, 177, 187, 201, 206n7

Hierarchies. See Organizational charts

Higher education, 30, 32, 53, 59, 91, 169-70; competence accumulation in, 77, 78; government involvement in, 33-34, 42, 92, 111, 115, 162

Historical periods, 162-63; rule births within, 119-20, 123-24, 165-67; rule changes within, 152, 156-59

Histories, rule, 3-5, 16, 48, 54-55, 83-85, 93-4, 172-79, 195-97; ecology and, 196; external influences on, 167, 169; inefficiencies in, 195-97, 201; measurement of, 93-94, 172-73; rule changes and, 145, 148, 150, 158-59, 172-73, 200 See also Rules.

History: role in rule development, 8, 22-24, 186; rule changes and, 26-27, 47-48, 141-44, 186; of rule regimes, 147, 150, 166-67; rules as records of, 11, 16, 19, 161, 198-99; significance in study of rules, 200-201; unwritten rules and, 20; written rules and, 2, 21-22. See also Historical periods; Histories, rule

Hobbesian problems of anarchy, 8

Honor Code, 43-44, 51-54

I

Identity, 6, 18-19,

Images, 11, 21

Implementation, 23, 202

Independence of rule changes, 155

Informal rules. See Unwritten rules

Institutionalization, 8, 24, 25

Interdependence. See Interrelationships of rules

Internal influences, 61, 118, 140, 161, 169. See also Ecology

Internalization, 9, 19

Interpersonal relationships, 10

Interpretation, 23-24, 43-44

Interrelationships of rules, 57-58, 71-74, 147-48, 151, 155, 159, 168-69, 179-82, 191-92. See also Ecology

Invisible hand of institutions, 19

J

Jordan, David Starr, 38, 42-43

Jurisdictions, 195

K

Kaplan-Meier estimation procedure, 207n2

Knowledge, 16, 21, 145, 175-76, 185-92, 193, 198; encoded in rules , 73-77, 186-192. See also Competence; Learning

Kolak, Noel, 40

L

Learning, 3-4, 18, 69, 81-82, 189-91; curves (amount of knowledge still remaining), 140, 200; experiential, 26, 57, 73-77, 186, 196, 197-200; local, 2, 66, 126, 180, 189; measurement of, 94, 145; proliferation of rules and, 125, 182, 193; role in rule evolution, 195-200, 202; rule births and, 125, 140, 182; rule changes and, 73-77, 173-74, 176. See also Competence; Knowledge

Legal environment, 58-60, 120, 186-88

Legislation, 60-61; in higher education, 33-34, 42, 92, 167-68; rule births and, 111, 115, 134, 167-68, 188; rule changes and, 147, 148, 151, 158, 159, 167-68, 188. See also Government.

Legitimacy, 25, 195

Lessons of history, 2, 4, 9, 16, 73, 77, 182, 198-99. See also History, Learning.

Liability of newness, 72, 78, 172, 198

Likelihood ratio, 207n11

Limdep, 207n9

Limited rationality, theories of, 10; see also Rationality

Local effects: of rule density and suspensions, 127-29, 131-32, 136, 139-40, 206-7n9, 206n8. See also Subpopulations, Global effects

Localization, 2, 4, 36, 70-71

Logic of appropriateness, 6, 10, 22

Logic of consequence, 6, 10, 22

Lyman, Richard W., 51

M

Memos, 36-37

Models: for measuring rule change, 143-45; negative binomial model, 206n7, 207n12; Poisson, 84, 108-9, 120-21, 128, 206-7n9, 206n7; single slope, 206-7n9

N

Negative binomial model, 206n7, 207n12

Negotiation, 12-13, 26, 186-87

Networks. See Diffusion; Interrelationships of rules

O

Obsolescence, rule version, 176, 198

Occurrence dependence , 79-80, 177

Organizational charts, 9-10, 131

Organizational structure: measurement of, 92, 111; rule births and, 111, 113, 147, 169; rule changes and, 147, 150-51, 158, 159, 169; stability of, 12, 19, 21. See also Complexity, organizational; Size, organizational

Organizations, 2-5, 8-11; function of rules within, 11-17, 48, 186-89; theories of, 8-11, 72, 78. See also Bureaucracies

Overdispersion, 109, 205n3, 206n7, 207n12, 207n13

P

Path-dependent processes, 196-97

Patterns: rule births, 48-50, 87-89, 106-7, 125, 159-60; rule changes, 53, 57, 63, 70 table 3.1, 87-89, 141, 159-60, 166, 176-78

Payroll processing, 35, 36

Personnel administration, 35, 36, 131

Poisson models, 84, 108-9, 120-21, 128, 206n7, 206n7, 206-7n9

Policies, 12, 86; on campus disturbances, 44-45, 47, 50; changes in, 37-38; creation of, 40; research, 8; tenure, 45-49

Political problems, 186-90, 193

Political processes, 26, 188

Politics: in higher education, 32-33; within organizations, 12, 15-16

Population, rule, 168-69

Predictability, 12, 187Predictions. See Patterns

Presidents, 38, 126, 129, 134

Problem absorption, 64-66, 76, 81-82, 126, 129, 159-60. See also Problem solving

Problems: influence of existing rules on, 165; political, 186-89, 193; recognition of, 63-64, 67-72; recycling of, 126, 129, 168, 206n6; sources of, 58-66; technical, 186, 189-91, 193; exogenous flows of, 63

Problem instigators , 65, 66, 165, 172, 196Problem recognition, theory of, 63, 67

Problem solving, 8; rule births and, 49-51, 56-57, 75, 125, 140; rule changes and, 26, 63; rules as records of, 162, 193, 196; stability of rules and, 53. See also Problem absorption

Problem space, 168-69, 181-82. See also Density

Problem supply, 131, 136

Procedural interdependence, 71-72, 155, 182

Procedures, 72, 86

Procedures for Appointment, Reappointment, and Promotion, 46

Proliferation, 13-14, 192-94. See also Births

The Protestant Ethic (Weber), 14

Protests. See demonstrations

Q

Quantitative analysis, 54-55, 200-201

R

Racial incidents, 43, 49, 50

Rationality, 7, 9-11, 13-14; theories of calculated, 10; See also Limited rationality

Records. See Archives

Recycling of problems, See Problems, recycling of

Regimes: academic rules and, 92, 113, 115-18, 123, 124, 136, 140, 164; administrative rules and, 109-11, 131-32, 147, 148, 164; age, 77-78, 91-92, 123, 124, 131-32, 136, 140, 147, 148, 159, 170-72, 190; effect on rule system, 170-72, 190; environment and, 165; histories of, 147, 150, 166-67; maturation of rule regimes, 68-9, 77, 170-72; rule births and, 109-11, 113, 115-18, 123, 124, 140; rule changes and, 77-78, 147, 148, 151-52, 159, 164; rule density and, 131-32, 136; at Stanford, 91-92, 163-65. See also Academic Council; Faculty Senate

Repeated events, 144-45

Research malpractice, 47

Residues of prior adaptation , 4, 168-9, 185, 196

Responsibility barriers, 195

Retention of experience, 21, 25, 28, 139, 169. See also Experience, Knowledge, Learning, Rules

Revisions, 2-4, 40-41; academic rules, 87-88, 115, 121, 134, 148-50; administrative rules, 85-86, 145-47; attention allocation and, 184; effect on stability, 79-80, 176-78, 194; government role in, 187-88; learning process and, 76; obsolescence and, 176; patterns of, 87-89; previous, 145, 148-50, 159, 176-78; problem absorption and, 76; rate of, 142, 175-79; rule age and, 79, 157-59, 173-74; in rule histories, 83-84, 93, 145, 147, 172-73; at Stanford, 37, 85-89; time distances between, 179, 180, 182-83. See also Changes; Plasticity; Suspensions

Right-censoring, 144

Ross, Edward A., 45

Rule-based action, 6-8, 10, 193, 196

Rules: areas of, 35, 49, 60, 127, as encodings of history, 16-17; as constructions of meaning, 14-16; as contractual substitutes for tacit understandings , 187; as depositories of knowledge, 16, 73-77, 186-192; as genes of organizations, 26; as primary instruments of coordination, 7, 9, 11-12; as proliferating organisms, 13-14, 125; as rational instruments, 11-13, 192-5; as trophies, 15-16; dysfunctions of 10; elaboration of, 49, 60-61, 65, 172, endurance of, 72-74, 77-79, 81, 173-76, 194-5, 198; functional interdependence of, 71-72, 155, 182; plasticity of, 79-80, 93; purposes of, 8, 21, 187; social functions of, 5-8, 18-20, 63, 187 stability of, 72-74, 77-81, 173-76, 178, 194-5, 198; substantive purposes of, 187; theories of, 5-17, 185-86; see also Academic rules, Administrative rules, Faculty rules, Histories, rules; Student rules

SAC. See Student Affairs Committee

Selection process, 25-26

Sexual harassment, 47

Sienna, James, 52

Size, organizational, 61; effect on rule population, 169-70; measurement of, 92-93; rule births and, 111, 113; rule changes and, 147, 150-51, 158; rule density and, 64, 187. See also Organizational structure

Social construction of problems, 14-16, 63

Society, theories of human, 7-8

Sociology, 8, 24-25

Space, 179, 180, 182-83, 191-92

Split-spell technology, 207n3

Stability: optimal level of, 194-95; organizational, 12, 19, 21; regime age and, 171; rule age and, 72-74; rule changes and, 53-54, 57-58, 80, 174-78

Stanford, Jane, 35, 38-39, 45

Stanford, Leland, 30

Stanford Faculty Handbook, 86

Stanford University, 28-34; academic rules, 38-40, 86-89; administrative rules, 35-38, 85-86, 87; degree programs, 32 fig. 2.2; patterns of rule births at, 106-7; proliferation of rules at, 193; rule archives, 85; rule regimes, 91-92, 163-65; stability of rules at, 194; student and faculty population, 31 fig. 2.1. See also Academic Council; Faculty Senate

Stanford University Bulletin, 86

Stanford University Register, 86

Statement of Faculty Discipline, 47

Statement of Policy on Appointment and Tenure at Stanford University, 46

Stories and statistics, 54-55

Student Affairs Committee, 42-43

Student enrollment, 30

Student rules, 42-43, 119-20; births, 121, 123-24, 129, 136; changes, 137, 150, 152, 153, 156; density and suspensions, 137; historical patterns of, 42-43, 52-53, 166; influence on faculty rules, 184; recycling, 137

Subpopulations, 119, 120; of academic rules, 122 table 5.5, 123-24, 126-28, 156, 166; of administrative rules, 127-28, 132; density and suspensions of rules within, 140; interrelations of rules and, 180-81. See also Domains; Faculty rules; Local effects; Student rules

Substitution, 62, 187

Suspensions, 3, 124-25; academic rules, 87, 115, 140; administrative rules, 86, 87-88, 112, 129, 132, 140; correlation with revisions, 175; global effects of, 128-29, 134, 136; local effects of, 128-29, 131-32, 136, 139-40, 206-7n9, 206n8; regime age and, 172; rule births and, 66, 112, 115, 129, 139-40, 179-82; rule density and, 80-82; rule histories and, 83-84, 172-73; of rules at Stanford, 86, 87-88; variables of, 206n6, 206n8; variations in subpopulations, 132, 137. See also Changes; Revisions

Symbolic compliance, 60

Symbolism, 8, 21, 187

T

Teams, 11-12

Technical problems, 186, 189-91, 193

Technology, 41, 79

Tenure policies, 45-49, 51-52

Threshold of problem recognition, 63-4

Time: attention allocation and, 69; distances between revisions and, 179, 180, 182-83; effect on rule system, 171-72; rule age and, 79; rule births and, 75, 108-9, 112, 128; rule changes and, 48, 72, 93, 155, 156, 165-67, 191-92, 195. See also Age, regime; Age, rule; History

Time-varying covariates, 143-44

Tinkering, 67, 79, 171, 177

Trust, 187-88

Turbulence, 181

U

Unconscious premises of action, 9

Unwritten rules, 8, 17-20; advantages of written rules over, 190, 198; density of, 180-81; in rule development, 53; substitutes for written rules, 62, 187. See also Rules, Written Rules.

V

Values, 72-73

Variables: academic rules, 94, 100-105 tables 4.4-4.6; administrative rules, 94, 95-99 tables 4.1-4.3; measurement of, 89-94; of rule density, 125; of rule regimes, 113

Veto power, 38

Vicious circles, 13

W

Weber, Max, 9-10, 13-14, 179

Whitehead, Alfred North, 197-98

Written rules, 1-2, 6, 9; advantages over unwritten rules, 190, 198; as carriers of history, 21-22; study of, 17-18. See also Rules; Unwritten rules.



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